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  6. Salix caprea

Salix caprea

Common names: Goat willow, Pussy willow, Great sallow 

Irish name: Saileach dubh 

Latin name: Salix caprea 

Family: Salicaceae 

Origin: Native 

Tree type: Broadleaf tree

How it Looks

Shape, bark, twigs 

Goat willow can grow to 10m in height. The bark is grey-brown and initially smooth but develops diamond-shaped fissures with age. Young twigs are greenish, hairy, thin and flexible at first but become smooth and reddish-brown in colour.  

Buds 

The buds vary in colour from green and yellow to reddish. They are oval with a bluntly pointed tip, slightly pressed to the twig, appearing alternate along the twig. 

Leaves 

Unlike most willows, the leaves are oval rather than long and thin. The tips of the leaves often bend to one side, have fine grey hairs underneath, and are hairless above. They alternate along the twigs and are light green in springtime but darken to a dull grey-green in summer. They are 5-10 cm in length and have a wavy edge.  

Flowers 

Goat willow is dioecious, meaning male and female flowers grow on separate trees. In early spring, before the leaves burst, the catkins develop. The male catkins begin silvery white, stout and oval, becoming golden yellow when ripe with pollen; the female catkins are green and narrower, with flask-shaped ovaries. Both catkins tend to be erect rather than hanging down. The flowers are predominantly insect-pollinated, but wind-pollination also occurs. 

Fruits 

Once pollinated, the female catkins develop seeds, and the seed capsules split open to release tiny seeds in woolly tufts, which are dispersed long distances by the wind. Like a lot of willow species, the goat willow can propagate itself by lowering its branches to the ground and developing roots. 

Similar species 

Goat willow leaves are different from other willows found in Ireland, with broad oval leaves. However, when the leaves are not present, they can look similar to grey willow and Salix cinerea. It can also hybridise with this tree. and photo of fruit, buds and catkins to show the difference. The colour of the year-old twigs and their relative sturdiness (those of pure caprea being noticeably thick and stocky) will often settle a doubt. The winter twigs of Salix caprea, greenish-yellow stained reddish-brown along the exposed surfaces, are quite distinct from other willows. 

Where to find it

The goat willow is native to Ireland and is one of the more common willows found there.  In fact, it is one of the most widely distributed willows in the world, growing as far east as China and Mongolia and as far north as Scandinavia. It is a cold-tolerant pioneer species that quickly colonises disturbed sites and waste grounds and can be found in many habitats. Although it prefers open areas, it is one of the few willows able to grow in woodland understories. It is also commonly found in hedgerows, scrub, and on damper, more open ground, such as near lakes, rivers, and streams.  

Cultural Importance

History | Myth, Legend and Folklore | Arts and Literature 

History 

Burnt material unearthed at Mesolithic (c. 8000-4000 BC) and Neolithic (c. 4000-2500 BC) period archaeological sites in Co. Tyrone in 2006-2007, demonstrates that early communities on the Island of Ireland were burning willow for various reasons as far back as 8400 years ago. Additional evidence from archaeological sites in the Irish midlands and Wicklow, indicate that willow continued to be used for fuel for different purposes, such as cooking and industry, from the Neolithic through to the Medieval period (c. 400-1600 AD).  

Willow was also used to make a type of rope or binding in antiquity. Hammer stones excavated at the Bronze Age (c. 2500-800 BC) mining site at Mount Gabriel, Co. Cork were found bound to a wooden handle with willow withies or rods. In the ancient Irish texts from the early Medieval period, there are also numerous references to the use of willow withies for tying up livestock.   

Along with other wood species, willow was used in Ireland during the Bronze Age and Iron Age (c. 800 BC – 400 AD) in the construction of wooden trackways that allowed people to traverse bogs and access their resources. Similarly, finds from archaeological excavations at Islandbridge in Dublin show that willow was used to make post and wattle fences during the late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age period. This type of wickerwork was also used in the construction of houses, scallops for thatching and other domestic items; practices which continued into later periods. It is likely that Willow, amongst other trees, was carefully managed and coppiced specifically for these everyday needs, especially from the Medieval period onwards.  

Willow was also valuable for making objects. For instance, an Iron Age mallet made of willow was found deposited within a bog trackway during archaeological excavation at Edercloon, Co. Longford. It is possible that the mallet had originally been used to construct the trackway. In addition, Methers – Irish medieval ceremonial drinking vessels on which the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) MacCarthy Cup is styled – were sometimes carved from willow. As were harps – the 14th century Brian Boru Harp, now housed in Trinity College Dublin, is made from willow. 

Medicinally, different parts of the willow were traditionally used to relieve pain associated with a headache or toothache and general aches and pains. In medieval times, the bark was chewed to release the salicin. Additionally, the bark was boiled in water to create a medicinal syrup that was taken to relieve digestive complaints, reduce joint inflammation, and act as a gargle for sore throats. 

In view of its usefulness in so many areas of life, it is unsurprising that in early medieval Ireland willow was deemed valuable. As a result, it featured in the early Irish tree lists as one of the ‘Commoners of the Wood’. If a person unlawfully damaged or felled one of these trees, they would have to pay a hefty fine in compensation amounting to as much as two milch cows and a three-year-old heifer. The willow was of such significance during this period that it was used to represent the character for the letter ‘S’ in the early Irish Ogham alphabet, taking the following form: 

Furthermore, it was so widespread throughout the country that willow features in many Irish placenames. Examples include Clonsilla or Cluain Saileach in Co. Dublin which translates as meadow of the willow’ and Parknasilla or Páirc na Saileach in Co. Kerry, which means ‘the field of the willows’ Co. Kerry. 

Willow has been similarly valued by different cultures across the world for various purposes, including for its medicinal uses and in the construction of different types of wickerwork. As in Ireland, Willow bark has also been used medicinally throughout the world for thousands of years to treat various ailments. For example, the Assyrians, Egyptians, and Greeks used it to treat pain, inflammation and fever.  

Myth, Legend and Folklore 

Willow is traditionally associated with themes of life, fertility, good luck and protection, and often connected with water and milk. In Irish folklore, it was seen as good luck to take a rod of willow, or as it was better known, a ‘sally rod’, with oneself on a journey. Likewise, wrapping a sally rod around a milk churn was believed to guarantee good butter or encourage the butter to form. Additionally, it was believed that willow charcoal could cause hair to regrow on an animal where it had previously gone bald. On account of its flexible nature, there was also the belief that hanging willow over one’s door would cause the inhabitants of the house to dance uncontrollably. 

In Scotland, willow rods were used as ‘Bride’s Wands’ at the time of the Bride’s Eve festival in February. In different parts of England, hanging willow over one’s door was thought variously to bring good luck to the house, and to protect against witches. 

Willow also features in the Irish myths. For example one story tells of how the King of Leinster, Labhraidh Loingseach’s ears were long like those of a horse, a fact that he kept hidden except from his barber who was sworn to secrecy. Developing an illness as a result of holding in this secret, the young barber whispered the secret to a local willow tree in order to get it off his chest. However, the tree is later cut down to make a harp that is played in the royal court, whereupon the harp sings only the words ‘Labhraidh Loingseach has horse’s ears!’, thus spreading the secret throughout the kingdom. 

Willow has multiple associations with milk and water in folklore and legend. Similarly, it is associated with the river Goddess Bóinn who was described in the myths as a great cow whose milk flowed in the river that we know today as the River Boyne. 

Arts and Literature 

The willow features frequently in literature. In early Irish poetry, the poet Suibhne Geilt refers to the tree as the ‘bright cheerful sallow’. It also features in a Medieval Irish Bardic poem in which Iubhdán, King of the Leprechauns, refer to it as a noble tree. The willow often crops up in later works such as the plays of William Shakespeare. More recently, it is cast in a negative light in the Harry Potter books in the form of the malevolent ‘Whomping Willow’. 

Perhaps one of the most famous homages to the willow in the arts is the William Morris pattern ‘Willow Boughs’, which he designed in 1887 and continues to adorn wallpaper and fabrics all over the world. 

Willow also features in songs, such as the Medieval folk song and carol, the ‘Bitter Withy’.  

Value to Wildlife

Goat willow flowers in early spring before it produces its leaves. This provides an essential early pollen and nectar source for insects and nectar-feeding birds, such as blue tits. Vast numbers of micro and larger moth caterpillars, such as the poplar hawkmoth and the puss moth, eat the leaves. Due to the many insect inhabitants, the tree is a popular feeding site for many birds. 

Like many trees, goat willow has symbiotic partnerships with fungi, where both parties benefit from their interaction. One of these fungi is the webcap fungus. As fungi cannot photosynthesise, the goat willow passes carbohydrates and sugars to the webcap fungi through a connection in the tree roots. In return, the fungi access minerals and other nutrients from the soil and pass them to the tree.  

Threats

Like other willows, goat willow is susceptible to watermark disease caused by the bacteria Brenneria salicis. Although this bacterium has not yet been recorded in Ireland, it has reached parts of the UK and has the potential to make its way over. The bacteria causes branches to die back and red leaves to develop in other parts of the crown, eventually, killing the tree if left untreated. 

Uses

With the goat willow’s timber being relatively soft and its brittle twigs not being suitable for weaving, it hasn’t been used to make much other than clothing pegs, paper, and some tool handles. 
  
Willows have been valuable to humans for their medicinal purposes. The painkiller aspirin is derived from salicin, a compound found in the bark of all Salix species. They are popular for fencing, hedging and traditional crafts such as basket making. They are also valuable for ecological restoration in that they stabilise riverbanks and prevent soil erosion, protect against flooding and rehabilitate contaminated land by processing contaminants such as heavy metals.

References

Irish Tree Explorers Network

Líonra Taiscéalaí Crainn na hÉireann

  • Dr Eoin Lettice, Senior Lecturer (Assistant Professor) in Plant Science - E.Lettice@ucc.ie
  • Dr Barbara Doyle Prestwich, Head of Plant Science & Vice Head of School Senior Lecturer/Assoc.Prof. - b.doyle@ucc.ie
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